Through the Eyes of Travellers Class 12 NCERT Solutions, PYQs & Notes

Ans: Bernier’s account provides some insights but is highly biased.
1. Crown Ownership of Land: He claimed that the Mughal Emperor owned all the land and distributed it among his nobles. Because nobles couldn't pass the land to their children, they mercilessly exploited the peasants to extract maximum revenue, ruining agriculture.
2. Poverty: He described the rural society as consisting of a tiny minority of super-rich nobles and a vast majority of extremely poor, oppressed peasants.
3. Limitations: Historians argue that his account is not entirely accurate. Official Mughal records (like Abu'l Fazl's writings) show that land was owned privately by zamindars and peasants, not exclusively by the crown. Bernier was trying to warn the French king against adopting the "despotic" Eastern model.

Ans: Ibn Battuta’s Rihla provides detailed evidence of slavery in 14th-century India:
1. Open Markets: Slaves were openly sold in markets, just like any other commodity, and were often given as gifts. Ibn Battuta himself bought slaves to present to the Sultan (Muhammad bin Tughlaq).
2. Female Slaves: Female slaves were employed in the Sultan's service as experts in music and dance. They were also used by the Sultan as spies to keep a watch on his nobles.
3. Domestic Labor: Slaves were widely used for domestic work. Their price, especially of those used for domestic labor, was very low, making it possible for most families who could afford it to keep one or two slaves.

Ans: Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking for parallels in other societies and referencing Sanskrit texts:
1. Parallels in Ancient Persia: He pointed out that ancient Persia also had four social classes (knights/princes, monks/fire-priests, physicians/astronomers, and peasants/artisans). He wanted to show that social divisions were not unique to India.
2. Brahmanical Texts: He noted the Brahmanical concept that the four Varnas emerged from the body of Brahma (Brahmana from the head, Kshatriya from shoulders, Vaishya from thighs, Shudra from feet).
3. Rejection of Pollution: While he accepted the caste divisions, he strongly rejected the notion of untouchability and "pollution." He argued that everything which falls into a state of impurity eventually strives to regain its original state of purity (like the sun cleaning the air), so the concept of permanent social pollution was against the laws of nature.

Ans: Al-Biruni was a scholar from Khwarizm (modern Uzbekistan). In 1017, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Khwarizm and took Al-Biruni as a hostage to Ghazni. When Mahmud expanded his empire into Punjab, Al-Biruni developed an interest in India, learned Sanskrit, and traveled there to study Indian philosophy and religion.

Ans: Kitab-ul-Hind is a book written by Al-Biruni in Arabic. It is a voluminous text divided into 80 chapters. It covers a vast range of subjects including religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners, customs, and the caste system. Its language is simple and lucid.

Ans: Al-Biruni noted three barriers: 1) The Sanskrit language, which was completely different from Arabic and Persian. 2) The difference in religious beliefs and practices. 3) The insularity and self-absorption of the local population, who were hesitant to share knowledge with a foreigner.

Ans: Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan traveler born in Tangier. He was an Islamic law expert who loved traveling. He visited India in the 14th century and spent several years in the court of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He wrote an extensive travelogue in Arabic called Rihla.

Ans: When Ibn Battuta reached Delhi, the Sultan, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, was highly impressed by his scholarship and knowledge of Islamic law (Shari'a). Consequently, the Sultan appointed him as the Qazi (judge) of Delhi.

Ans: Ibn Battuta described Tarababad as the singers' market in the city of Daulatabad. It was a beautiful, well-decorated marketplace with shops where female singers lived and performed. There were even swings and a central pavilion where the chief of the musicians held court.

Ans: Ibn Battuta noted that Indian agriculture was highly productive. This was primarily because of the extreme fertility of the soil, which allowed farmers to cultivate two crops a year (Kharif and Rabi). This rich agriculture supported the flourishing trade and vibrant cities.

Ans: Francois Bernier was a Frenchman—a doctor, political philosopher, and historian. He came to the Mughal Empire in 1656 and stayed for 12 years. He was closely associated with the Mughal court, initially working as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan.

Ans: Bernier described Mughal cities as 'camp towns', arguing that they owed their existence completely to the imperial camp. According to him, these cities grew rapidly when the royal court moved there and rapidly declined when the court moved away. He incorrectly assumed they lacked genuine social and economic foundations.

Ans: Bernier wrote that Indian artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures because all profits were appropriated by the state and nobles. He believed that manufactures were declining. However, he paradoxically also noted that vast quantities of precious metals flowed into India in exchange for its rich manufactured goods.

Ans: Bernier provided a detailed and horrifying description of Sati (the burning of a widow on her husband's funeral pyre). He noted that while some women embraced death cheerfully, others were forced to die against their will by orthodox family members and society.

Ans: After the Portuguese arrived in India in the 15th century, travelers like Duarte Barbosa wrote detailed accounts of trade and society in South India. These European accounts provide crucial historical evidence of India's maritime trade and coastal economy before the British era.

Ans: Jean-Baptiste Tavernier was a famous French jeweler who traveled to India at least six times in the 17th century. He was fascinated by the trading conditions in India and often compared India to Iran and the Ottoman empire.

Ans: Niccolao Manucci was an Italian doctor and traveler who visited India in the 17th century. Unlike many other Europeans who returned home, Manucci settled down in India and never returned to Europe.

Ans: Travelogues are vital because foreign travelers noticed and wrote about everyday things—like local customs, food, postal systems, and city life—that local writers often ignored because they considered them too ordinary or routine to document. They provide a fresh, external perspective on Indian society.