Bricks, Beads and Bones Class 12 NCERT Solutions, PYQs & Notes

Ans: The raw materials required included stones (steatite, carnelian, lapis lazuli, jasper), metals (copper, bronze, gold), shell, and terracotta/clay.
How they were obtained:
1. Local procurement: Clay and terracotta were locally available.
2. Setting up settlements: They established settlements near raw material sources (e.g., Nageshwar and Balakot for shells; Shortughai for lapis lazuli).
3. Expeditions: They sent expeditions to the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and South India (for gold).
4. Distant Trade: Copper was also brought from Oman, and they traded with Mesopotamia (Magan and Meluhha).

Ans: Archaeologists reconstruct the past by examining material remains:
1. Material Evidence: They study artifacts like pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, and ruins of buildings.
2. Classifying Finds: They classify finds based on material (stone, clay, metal) and function (tool, ornament, ritual object).
3. Context: Understanding where an object was found (in a drain, a grave, a house) helps determine its use.
4. Comparisons: They compare ancient artifacts with present-day practices (e.g., assuming ancient saddle querns were used for grinding grain like modern ones).
5. Scientific Analysis: Using carbon dating to determine the age of organic materials.

Ans: Mohenjodaro is an outstanding example of urban planning:
1. Division of City: It was divided into two parts—the smaller, higher 'Citadel' (built on mud-brick platforms) and the larger, lower 'Lower Town'.
2. Drainage System: It had a carefully planned drainage system. Roads and streets were laid out in a grid pattern, intersecting at right angles, and drains were covered.
3. Domestic Architecture: Houses had a central courtyard with rooms on all sides. There were no windows along the ground-level walls to maintain privacy. Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks.
4. Public Buildings: The Citadel contained special buildings like the Warehouse and the Great Bath, likely used for ritual bathing.

Ans: 1. The Harappan script remains undeciphered, so we cannot read their written records.
2. Organic materials like cloth, leather, wood, and reeds have decayed; only stone, burnt clay, and metal survive.
3. Religious practices are very difficult to interpret. Objects that seem unusual (like female terracotta figurines) are often labeled "religious" without absolute proof (e.g., the "Mother Goddess" or "Priest-King").
4. Archaeologists sometimes project modern cultural ideas onto ancient artifacts, which might lead to wrong interpretations.

Ans: The Harappan seal is possibly the most distinctive artifact of the civilization. Made of a stone called steatite, it contains animal motifs and undeciphered script. It is important because it was primarily used to facilitate long-distance communication and trade (used for sealing goods).

Ans: Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products. They cultivated wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, and sesame. In Gujarat, millets were found. They domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig. They also ate fish, fowl, and wild animal meat (like boar, deer, and gharial).

Ans: Found in the Citadel of Mohenjodaro, the Great Bath is a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor. It had two flights of steps leading into it. It was made watertight using bricks set in mortar and a layer of natural tar (bitumen). Scholars believe it was meant for special ritual baths.

Ans: Archaeologists look for specific evidence: raw materials (stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore), tools, unfinished objects, rejects, and waste material. Waste is one of the best indicators; if a shell or stone is cut to make beads, pieces discarded as waste will be found at the place of production.

Ans: Chanhudaro was a tiny settlement (less than 7 hectares) that was almost exclusively devoted to craft production. It was famous for bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making, and weight-making. Specialized drills have been found here.

Ans: Chemical analyses have shown that both Omani copper and Harappan artifacts contain traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin. Furthermore, a large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has been found at Omani sites, indicating trade.

Ans: Mesopotamian texts refer to the Harappan region as "Meluhha" (the land of seafarers). They mention products from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood.

Ans: Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called chert, and generally cubical with no markings. The lower denominations were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. up to 12,800), while the higher denominations followed the decimal system.

Ans: A stone statue found in Mohenjodaro was labeled the "Priest-King" by archaeologists. They used this term because they were familiar with Mesopotamian history where priest-kings ruled, but we have no actual evidence that Harappan society was ruled by priests.

Ans: Scholars have different views. Some say Harappan society had no rulers and everybody enjoyed equal status. Others feel there was no single ruler but several (Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another). The most plausible theory is that there was a single state, given the extreme uniformity in artifacts, bricks, and planned settlements.

Ans: Cunningham, the first Director-General of ASI, relied heavily on Chinese Buddhist pilgrim accounts (4th-7th century CE) to locate ancient sites. He thought Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley. So, when he was given a Harappan seal, he could not place it within the time frame he was familiar with.

Ans: John Marshall was the Director-General of ASI who, in 1924, formally announced the discovery of a new civilization in the Indus valley to the world. He was a professional archaeologist who brought his experience of working in Greece and Crete to India. However, he tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site.

Ans: R.E.M. Wheeler, who took over as DG of ASI in 1944, rectified Marshall's mistake. As an ex-army brigadier, he brought military precision to archaeology. He recognized that it was essential to follow the stratigraphy (the layers) of the mound rather than digging mechanically along uniform horizontal lines.

Ans: Hoards are objects kept carefully by people, often inside containers such as pots. Such hoards can be of jewellery or metal objects saved for future use by metalworkers. If for some reason the owners do not retrieve them, they remain in place until found by archaeologists.

Ans: Lothal is famous for its massive brick dockyard, indicating it was a major center for maritime trade. Dholavira is unique because, unlike most Harappan cities divided into two parts, Dholavira was divided into three distinct parts, and it had large water reservoirs used for harvesting rain.