Peasants, Zamindars and the State Class 12 NCERT Solutions, PYQs & Notes

Ans: Problems with the Ain:
1. Mathematical Errors: Historians found numerous errors in totaling the data within the text, indicating a slip-up by Abu'l Fazl's assistants.
2. Missing Provinces: The data is not uniform across all provinces. For example, detailed information regarding the caste composition of zamindars is available for Bengal and Awadh, but not for other provinces.
3. Biased Perspective: The Ain was an official Mughal document. It projects the empire as a perfect, flawless machine and suppresses any information about peasant rebellions or harsh exploitation.
How historians deal with it: They cross-check the Ain with other contemporary sources, such as revenue records from Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan, and extensive records of the East India Company from the late 18th century.

Ans: It would be incorrect to characterize it purely as subsistence agriculture (growing crops only for self-consumption):
1. Jins-i-Kamil: The state highly encouraged the cultivation of "perfect crops" (cash crops) like cotton and sugarcane because they generated higher revenue.
2. Global Trade: Indian agriculture was highly commercialized. Cotton from India was exported globally. Later, new crops like tobacco, maize, tomatoes, and potatoes were introduced from the New World and grown commercially.
3. Monetization: Peasants paid taxes in cash. To do so, they had to sell their surplus produce in the markets, heavily linking the village economy to towns and international trade.

Ans: Women played a crucial role in agricultural production:
1. Field Work: They worked shoulder to shoulder with men in the fields. While men tilled and ploughed, women sowed, weeded, and threshed the harvest.
2. Commercial Products: With the growth of commercial agriculture, women's labor was vital in spinning yarn, sifting cotton, and kneading clay for pottery.
3. Vulnerabilities: Despite their immense contribution, they faced high mortality rates due to frequent pregnancies and malnutrition. Furthermore, they were subjected to strict patriarchal control; if suspected of infidelity, they faced brutal punishments from the village panchayats.

Ans: Khud-kasht peasants were residents of the village in which they held their lands. They cultivated their own land using their own ploughs and cattle.

Ans: Pahi-kasht were non-resident cultivators who belonged to some other village but cultivated lands elsewhere on a contractual basis. They often migrated to other villages out of choice (for better revenue terms) or out of compulsion (driven by famine or oppression).

Ans: In the Mughal land revenue system, Jama was the assessed amount (the estimated revenue the state expected to collect), whereas Hasil was the amount actually collected from the peasants.

Ans: The Patwari was the village accountant. He assisted the village headman (Muqaddam) in maintaining the financial accounts, land records, and revenue details of the village panchayat.

Ans: Shroffs or sarrafs were money-changers and bankers in Mughal India. They played a vital role in commercial activities, facilitating credit and the exchange of currencies across long trade routes.

Ans: While agriculture heavily depended on monsoons, state and local initiatives provided artificial irrigation through canals, wells, and the Persian wheel (rahat) used for drawing water from deep wells.

Ans: Apart from the village panchayat, each caste (jati) in the village had its own Jati Panchayat. These wielded considerable power, resolving civil disputes between members of the same caste and ensuring that marriages and rituals followed caste norms.

Ans: In the societal hierarchy, untouchable communities and those performing menial tasks (like scavengers) were given derogatory names. However, they were sometimes ironically labeled 'Halalkhor' (eaters of legally earned or pure food) to mask their severely marginalized status.

Ans: In many villages, artisans (like blacksmiths, carpenters, potters) provided specialized services to the village community. In return for their services throughout the year, they were compensated by the villagers with a share of the harvest or an allotment of land. This system of reciprocal exchange was called the Jajmani system.

Ans: Abu'l Fazl was a profound scholar, historian, and a close friend and minister of Emperor Akbar. He authored the monumental Akbarnama, the third volume of which is the famous Ain-i-Akbari.

Ans: Revenue was collected primarily in cash, though crop-sharing (batai) was also practiced. The Amin (revenue official) was directed to assess the crops and collect the state's share, ideally dealing directly with the cultivators, though practically zamindars collected it on their behalf.

Ans: During the 16th and 17th centuries, crops from the Americas (the New World) reached India via trade. These included tobacco, maize (corn), tomatoes, potatoes, and chillies, which dramatically changed the agrarian landscape and dietary habits.

Ans: The state constantly expanded the agricultural frontier into forest areas. Tribal chiefs often became zamindars, established their own armies, and encouraged (or forced) the forest communities to clear the land and settle down as regular peasant farmers.

Ans: The Mansabdari system was the administrative framework of the Mughal Empire. Every civil and military officer was given a 'mansab' (rank). They were paid either in cash or through 'jagirs' (revenue assignments from specific lands), integrating the military and civilian administration with the agrarian economy.

Ans: Contemporary sources use the term 'mawas' to describe the deep forests or rebellious territories which acted as places of refuge (mawas) for troublemakers, rebellious zamindars, and peasants avoiding heavy tax collection by the state.